Elite theory

This article reviews contemporary elite theory in political sociology and political science. The concept of ‘elites’ is based on the notion that every society holds a ruling minority, a group that controls and disputes the most important power sources. Not only do elites dispute power (reaching different levels of conflict and violence), but new elites also enter the game through different mechanisms of elite recruitment. Thus, the core of elite theory relies in explaining elite behavior, elite interaction, elite transformation and, ultimately, the connection between those instances and state outcomes. The link between elite behavior and regime change led a number of authors to almost naturalize elite theory as ‘regime theory’ (e.g. Dogan and Higley, 1998; Higley and Burton, 2006). Yet elite theory is not restricted to the study of regime change and regime support. Although studies do tend to focus on the political realm, elite researchers often explore power relations inside the market and civil society as well. An important focus within elite research is the emergence of welfare states, a political phenomenon directly related with market regulation and the state’s capacity to penetrate society (e.g. de Swaan, 1988; Reis and Moore, 2005; Verba and Orren, 1985; Verba et al., 1987). Elite theory also approaches the question of social development and modernization in both Western and non-Western contexts (e.g. Cardoso, 1964; de Swaan et al., 2000; Lipset and Solari, 1967; López, 2013; Reis and Moore, 2005). Elite theory is deep-rooted in classical sociology, especially that of Weber (2005 [1922]), Pareto (1935), Mosca (1939) and Michels (2009 [1915]). These authors are usually labeled as ‘classical elitists’. Beyond its strong roots in classical sociology, elite theory developed into a vibrant theoretical field, intersecting other theories, such as rational choice theory and political culture theory. Most elite theory reviews (e.g. de Hollanda, 2011; Khan, 2012) focus on the work of classical elitists, considered to be the founding fathers of the elitist school. Classical authors are important references and I will briefly review their work as well, yet my intention is to privilege contemporary elite theory and research, highlighting empirical findings and current research challenges. Classical and current elite theorists share the ambition of explaining state outcomes through elite behavior. If political sociology is concerned with the relationship between state and society (see Sociopedia.isa article on political sociology by Botelho, 2011), elite theory is based on the assumption that elite action has a causal effect on such a relationship. Thus, regime types, regime change, liberalization, stateness, secularization and many other political phenomena fit within the scope of elite theory. Currently, there is an important effort to unify/synthesize elite theory (e.g. Field and Higley, 2012; Higley and Burton, 2006). This effort is often abstract This article reviews contemporary elite theory in political sociology and political science. Elite theory is based on the assumption that elite behavior has a causal relationship with general patterns of state–society relations. The article presents classical concepts of elite theory, such as elite inevitability and elite circulation, while privileging contemporary challenges and trends in elite theory. The discussion addresses elite origins of democracy and elite origins of the welfare state, as well as elites/non-elites interdependence.